Hybrid Warfare, explained
September 28, 2025
Why is hybrid warfare important?
Countries cannot rely on defence treaties (like NATO) against hybrid warfare because it does not count as war under international law.
Smaller countries can use hybrid warfare to pressure larger neighbours without having a big army or a strong economy.
At the same time, larger countries can increasingly pressure their neighbours without serious consequences.
This shifts the global power balance.
Specific weak spots can be targeted with hybrid operations, such as shipping chokepoints or strategic sectors like energy.
Economic warfare
Sanctions can be used to harm another country’s economy for various goals.
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Sanctions can include a ban on trade with the country (embargo), limiting access to banks and other institutions, personal sanctions against officials and so on.
By slowing economic activity and limiting access to key imports, sanctions aim to reduce a rival’s economic and military strength, as well as public support.
For example, US economic sanctions against the authoritarian government of Venezuela have worsened the crisis in the country but failed to bring a regime change so far.
The energy sector is another way to pressure opponents:
After the invasion of Ukraine, the EU reduced its energy imports (oil, gas and coal) from Russia to reduce its revenue.
At the same time, European dependency on these imports meant this came at a cost of €400 billion in fuel subsidies in 2022 alone.
Political warfare
Governments can influence other states by manipulating their political life.
This can be done by influencing (1) officials and politicians, or (2) the public.
Foreign political leaders may be influenced with money, either officially or indirectly.
Political parties or organisations may get funding or support that helps them become more popular, advancing specific views or policies.
Non-governmental or even illegal organisations may also get funding and training to advance the goals of another government.
For example, Russia has funded pro-Russian political parties and separatist movements in Ukraine, destabilising and influencing its politics.
Similarly, Israel supports various political groups in neighbouring countries, such as the Druze in Syria, to advance its interests.
Information warfare
Goal: to influence how people think.
This involves spreading specific information or misinformation to promote some opinions or actions.
The rise of the internet has reduced the power of traditional media, such as cable news and newspapers, and opened countries to more foreign influence.
Bots and fake accounts are used on social media to generate outrage at specific issues.
Political influencers can adjust their messaging for specific audiences, creating fear or confusion.
During the 2016 US presidential elections, Russia ran a large-scale social media campaign that promoted conflict across the political spectrum.
In 2024, the first round of Romanian presidential election was annulled (declared invalid) due to Russian interference.
On the day of publication, Moldova holds parliamentary elections amid fears of Russian interference.
During the COVID-19 pandemic, the US ran an information campaign in the Philippines against China’s vaccine, claiming it was unsafe.
The US was concerned that China’s influence was growing in the Philippines, US’ strategic partner in the Pacific.
Cyber warfare
An increasingly digital world has made cyber warfare a more powerful tool.
States or state-backed groups can hack foreign governments, businesses and individuals to advance their own interests.
Cyber espionage is the gathering of strategic information about the opponent through hacking.
Hackers can damage or destroy critical infrastructure, such as energy grids, communication systems, banking services or hospital equipment.
Electronic warfare also takes advantage of our highly technologically dependent world.
It involves directly affecting electronic devices in an area with signal jamming or magnetic impulses.
Electronic warfare can target satellites in space, disrupting navigation and communications.
The risk of being disconnected from the American GPS satellite navigation system has led Russia and China to develop alternatives.
Irregular warfare
It is closer to conventional war than the types mentioned previously.
Irregular warfare involves using soldiers and equipment that are not officially a part of the country’s military.
Proxy forces are military groups that are trained, equipped and directed by a foreign government to do the actual fighting on their behalf.
Iran has assisted local militias in Lebanon, Iraq, Syria and Yemen that share its anti-Israel and anti-US stance and supported them in their actions indirectly.
Similarly, governments may provide support to insurgent or terrorist groups fighting a rival.
The 2025 India-Pakistan Clash was caused by a terrorist attack by a group that India claims Pakistan is helping.
Unmarked troops consist of regular soldiers fighting for their governments but without wearing insignia (military badges).
This allows governments to deny involvement in case unmarked troops are revealed.
Russia used unmarked troops to secure control of Ukraine’s Crimean Peninsula before annexing the territory in 2014.
Sabotage, such as destroying physical infrastructure, also has deniability while harming an adversary.
Since 2022, Russia has carried out a series of sabotage attacks on Europe, including damaging energy infrastructure and cutting underwater communications cables.
Civilians can also be used as a hybrid warfare tool.
In the South China Sea, Chinese fishing fleets have been supporting Chinese territorial claims while pushing back against foreign governments.
Hybrid warfare often relies on using society against itself to apply pressure.
Countries like Belarus, Tunisia and Turkey have influenced and pressured the EU by managing the flow of refugees into the bloc.
The goal is to create domestic political opposition as well as to put pressure on limited resources.
In response, governments like Poland have built fencing and other barriers to keep migrants out while European governments are also negotiating with nearby countries to prevent future irregular migration.
Hybrid warfare is related to the concept of soft power:
Soft power means influencing other countries through economic and cultural means, making it beneficial for them to follow the same goals.
Countries often view their hybrid warfare actions as an expression of soft power.
However, destructive or violent tactics are not normally considered a use of soft power.
Author Naman Habtom, PhD
Editor Anton Kutuzov
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